Leading Adult Educators - Group 2

Leading Adult Educators: Margaret Sanger and Sharan Merriam

Adult education is the “activities intentionally designed for the purpose of bring about learning among those whose age, social roles, or self-perception define them as adults (Merriam & Brockett, 2007, p. 8). It supports local communities and changes along with the culture to benefit society. Beder (1989) lists five core principles of adult education. They are that adult education must play a major in society, that lifelong learning is a must, the idea that all adults can learn, adults should have access to learning, and the way adults are educated should be different than how pre-adults are taught. Both Margaret Sanger and Sharan Merriam believed in these core principles, too. Both of these women have made contributions to the field of adult education that have changed people’s lives so they can participate as a productive members of society.

Margaret Sanger

Over the last century, the natural family size of 11 to 18 children per mother has been replaced by an average of 2.1 children per family (Haub, 2004). This is mostly due to the radical social changes brought to America’s attention by Margaret Sanger who began vocalizing and writing about sex education and birth control in 1912 and never stopped. Although she died in 1966, her legacy still lives on and she continues to provoke controversy.

Born in the city of Coming, New York on September 14, 1879 as Margaret Higgins, she was one of eleven children (Lader, 1953). Her father was a free thinking stone mason and her mother was a devout Catholic Irish American. After 18 pregnancies and 11 live births in 22 years, her mother died from tuberculosis and cervical cancer most likely brought on by problems associated with the pregnancies. Seeing her mother suffer not only in death, but through life as she was truly the caregiver of the family, Margaret swore to not repeat her mother’s life.

In 1896, Margaret entered Claverack College and the Hudson River Institute (Lader, 1953). Her oldest sisters paid the tuition and she worked for room and board money. When her father beckoned her home to nurse her ailing1896 she did, and remained there until her death in 1899. Afterwards, she entered into the nursing program at the White Plains hospital and in 1902 she became a nurse after two years of practical training.

Months before completing nursing school, she met William Sanger, who quickly pressured her into marriage (Lader, 1953). Forgetting her oath to not follow in the footsteps of her mother, she almost died from her first pregnancy. In 1910 the family moved to New York City to pursue her husband’s dream of painting. Margaret worked as a nurse to help support the family.

However, her earlier vow led her to an epiphany during her time as a nurse. She was motivated her to learn more about sex education and women’s health but could not find the information (Lader, 1953). Sanger was working in a poor part of New York and saw the suffering and death associated with pregnancies, miscarriages, and botched abortions and felt helpless. In 1912 she wrote a column for the New York Call magazine called “What Every Girl Should Know.” She wrote that women are more than child bearing machines and they must be education on birth contraceptives, birth spacing, and venereal disease. A later article in 1913 in the magazine on the topic of venereal disease was banned by the postal authorities.

Margaret Sanger, though an accomplished author of several crucial pieces on women’s rights, women’s health, marriage, abortion, and, most notably, birth control, is best known for her many stands against the Comstock laws of the early 1900’s. The Comstock laws were initiated by Anthony Comstock, an essentially self-appointed Special Agent for the U.S. Post Office, and made it illegal to distribute materials prevention conception. Sanger sought to drive public outcry against these efforts and laws brought about by Comstock, and this served as the motivation for Sanger’s efforts (Wardell, 1980).

She had experienced the need for preservation of women’s liberties and sexual freedoms through her mother, herself, and a repeating patient, Sadie Sachs, who endured a terrible death in 1912 at the age of 28 due to a self-induced abortion. Sachs represented the millions of women dying, living with disease, and committing suicides due to unwanted pregnancies. Thus, starting in 1912 Sanger’s mission in life was to raise awareness of, educate people on, and eventually make mainstream birth control (Wardell, 1980).

Amid several arrests and constant persecution by the New York police and even the federal government, Sanger forged ahead, first distributing a monthly magazine titled The Woman Rebel for eight months until Comstock said it could not be mailed. Knowing jail time was imminent, she wrote and printed the pamphlet Family Limitation before fleeing to Europe.  Sanger’s initiative worked, as publicity centered around birth control and women’s rights to freedom quickly escalated (Britannica Online, n.d.).

The turning point in Sanger’s efforts came in 1916, when she opened the first birth control clinic in the United States in Brooklyn. This clinic served as the birth of today’s Planned Parenthood. After multiple arrests and great hardship, Sanger won a landmark decision in the New York Court of Appeals in 1918. The court essentially said doctors were not able to give patients advice on birth control as it pertained to health risks. She continued to raise awareness around the country, as she traveled with a doctor who spoke on birth control. She compiled lists of doctors around the country who agreed to take on patients in need of birth control advice. This served as an immense and pioneering referral database (Buerkle, 2008; Wardell, 1980).

Sanger founded and served as the editor of Birth Control Review from 1917 to 1938. She also penned Comstockery in America (1915), The Case for Birth Control (1917), Why not Birth Control Clinics in the U.S.? (1919), Woman and the New Race (1920), The Pivot of Civilization (1922), Happiness in Marriage (1926) Motherhood in Bondage (1928), My Fight for Birth Control (1931), and Margaret Sanger; an Autobiography (1938), among others (http://www.nyu.edu/projects/sanger/secure /aboutms/ms_writings.html). Happiness in Marriage had a significant impact on U.S. family culture, as many assert it served as the first marriage manual in this country (Wardell, 1980).

Sanger’s work and publications have left an undeniable impact on adult education and the feminism movement. She fought her early battles alone, and forged ahead when most would have backed down under the government pressure and lack of support. Her strength, passion, and perseverance continue to be a model for adult education on social causes even today. Without question, adult educators of today can draw from her courage, determination, innovation, creativity, and strategies. Her clever tactics, such as driving public support by leveraging her persecution, serve as a valuable example as to how to fight for worthy causes. America is currently at internal battle over issues such as capitalism, diversity, equal compensation for women, financial freedom, public welfare, state government autonomy, and federal government control. Sanger’s ability to persevere against all odds with very little resources or support is an example for all adult educators to follow in these turbulent times.

Margaret Sanger did not invent birth control or even improve upon it. What she did was educate adults by teaching them the knowledge of others. She openly taught people about birth control in a time when the distribution of information regarding birth control was against the law (Coigney, 1969). The United States was divided in the areas of public morality and birth control was deemed too radical. Ignoring the detractors, Margaret Sanger educated adults, both men and women, about birth control at a time when the general belief was that only God had the power to control conception. She was a woman who spoke outright about sex and birth in a time when not even men spoke of these things. In many people’s opinions, this makes her as revolutionary as Darwin and as brave as Martin Luther King, Jr. (Sulloway, 1959).

Sharan Merriam

Sharan B. Ballard was born May 24, 1943 in New York to Harold and Janet Ballard. She has two adult children from her ex-husband Allen Merriam. Dr. Merriam has spent most of her life studying, researching, and sharing her findings in the field of adult education. She has been the author, co-author, editor, co-editor and reference for many articles, books, and research on emerging trends in adult development, adult learning theory, and qualitative research methods thus making her a leading adult educator of this century (Merriam, n.d.). Her books, articles, and research are used in classrooms and courses all over the world including Ball State University’s own course Adult and Community Education EDAC 631. Dr. Merriam is currently a tenured professor at the University of Georgia in the university’s College of Education. She has been facilitating learning of adults since the 1970s.

Sharan Ballard married Allen Merriam September 5, 1964. A year later she obtained her Bachelors of Arts in English Literature from Drew University. This was just two years after congress passed the Equal Pay Act of 1963 which was a breakthrough for women’s rights (Brunner 2007).  A short time later, in 1971, she completed her Masters of Education in English Education from Ohio University. Nearly a decade later in 1978, Sharan B. Merriam successfully completed her Doctorate of Education in Adult and Continuing Education from Rutgers University. After completing her doctoral degree, she accepted an assistant professor position in the College of Education at Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University teaching and advising the college’s graduate students. During this time she had also accepted a “quarter-time” position working at the Gerontology Center as an associate. As an associate at the Gerontology Center she planned and developed courses, wrote grant proposals, and staffed conferences in the field of gerontology (Merriam, n.d.).

In 1981, Dr. Merriam accepted another associate professor position at Northern Illinois University. This was just one year after her divorce from Allen Merriam. Dr. Sharan Merriam kept her husband’s last name after the divorce. At Northern Illinois University as associate professor of Adult and Continuing Education, Dr. Merriam was an advisor to graduate students in her department. There she also taught graduate level courses in adult learning and research practices. She worked at Northern Illinois University for four years until she accepted a professor appointment at the University of Georgia in Athens, Georgia.

      Dr. Sharan B. Merriam has worked at the University of Georgia since 1985. Since her appointment as professor at the University of Georgia, Dr. Merriam has been busy impacting the field of adult education. In 1991, she became a research fellow for a year for the Project for Study of Adult Learning (PSAL). The same year she co-wrote the notable book Lifelines: Patterns of Work, Love and Learning in Adulthood. She became the recipient of the Georgia Adult Education Association’s Literacy Award for the book Lifelines: Patterns of Work, Love and Learning in Adulthood in 1993. Since then she has received countless awards and recognition for her contributions to the field of adult education and research practices. Dr. Merriam has conducted and presented numerous workshops and presentation around the world to include places like Australia, New Zealand, and South Africa (Merriam, n.d.).

       Dr. Merriam believes that self-directed learning has a great influence on adult learning theory. Self-directed learning is a theory that has been very intriguing and is evolving with time. The more researchers explore the ideas, concepts, and benefits of self-directed learning the more the field of education will evolve and expand, in particular adult education.

Dr. Sharan Merriam is co-author of a text used by graduate schools around the world, Learning in Adulthood (Million, n.d.). She has been a professor for a number of years, is the author of 20 books and several published articles, was a Fulbright scholar in Malaysia, and has served in editorial capacities for numerous journals and books. In her article ‘Adult Learning Theory for the 21^st Century’, Dr. Merriam reminds us what a ‘dynamic’ field adult education truly is and highlights the importance of continued research into the evolving methodologies (Merriam, 2008, p. 94). Dr. Merriam continued that she believes it is important to recognize the spirituality component of learning, and feels that learning is a mind and body experience (Merriam, 2008).

Dr. Merriam’s work has impacted the field of adult education by providing thoughtful examination of the current state of affairs and reflections about the past, as well as ideas and probing questions for future research (Merriam, 2008). In her article about the ‘pillars of adult learning theory’, she analyzes what she terms their ‘staying power’, and what adaptations need to be in order for them to remain relevant. This article shows how crucial she is to the field because she is continually evaluating where it stands and seeking opportunities for improvement.

Merriam’s theories and work could be used to inform our own work by incorporating her ideas about the importance of self-directed learning and the power of reflection.  Her thoughts about self-directed learning are particularly interesting and relevant to online learning due to the intrinsic motivation needed by distance education students. Being a distance education student can be more challenging if only because there is less structure and thus easier to veer off course. Research into this area of adult education will be more relevant as online programs become progressively more prevalent in our society due to the availability of electronic resources and the changing needs of adult learners. The general goals of self-directed learning varies based on the theorist, but those Merriam writes about are the ‘learner’s capacity to be self-directed’ and the learner ‘accepting responsibility for their own learning’ (Merriam, 2001).  To acknowledge the validity of the self-directed learning theory and incorporate it into our practice as learners and educators would allow us to take more responsibility upon ourselves and encourage others to do the same. As members of the cohort responsible for future research in this arena, we should recognize the importance of the research of Merriam and others on this topic.

Another topic Merriam wrote about that is relevant to our class and our futures as educators was the idea that self-reflection is critical to adult learning (Merriam, 2008). This is not a novel idea for any of the members of our class, but it is something worth discussing again. The act of reflection is a learning experience, as is the process of developing the ability to reflect about past learning. According to Merriam, when processing new information, the brain looks to previously held information to facilitate connections, a system that allows us to absorb meanings and ensures retention. Knowing this about reflection underscores the validity of this line of research and the importance of its incorporation into our practice.

             Margaret Sanger                                  Sharan Merriam

Time Period	1912-1966	Late 1970s to present
Background	Born in 1879 in New York, Sanger was from a time when sex and birth control were not spoken of and women were seen as the fairer sex. The death of her mother later led her to an epiphany during her time as a nurse.	Born in 1942 in New York. She is an author, co-author, editor, co-editor and reference for many articles, books, and research on emerging trends in adult development, adult learning theory, and qualitative research methods
Profile	One of eleven children. In 1896 attended Claverack College and Hudson River Institute and received a nursing degree in 1902 from White Plains Hospital. Through her work as a nurse, she realized that women and men needed to be educated about birth control and venereal disease.	Holds a Bachelors of Arts in English Literature, Masters of Education English, and a Doctorate of Education  in Adult and Continuing Education. Dr. Merriam has been working at the University of Georgia since 1985 and since then has received countless awards for her research and contributions to the field of adult education.
Contributions	Advocating birth control and women’s health, coining the term birth control, women’s sexual freedom, marriage manual, start of birth control clinics and education (Planned Parenthood), Birth Control League. She also wrote many articles and book on the subjects of sex, birth control, venereal disease, and abortion.	Numerous publications of books and articles about adult education, serves as editor for journals and others’ research efforts, and extensive research into andragogy, self-directed learning theory and other aspects of adult education,  member of a number of professional societies and received multiple grants to continue her research.
Impact	Fueled the feminist movement and made women’s health an important topic. Years after he death she is still an important figure in feminism and in woman’s healthcare.	Ongoing evaluations of the current standing of the adult education field, discusses possible directions for the future, advises and oversees graduate student and their work
Implications	Perseverance, innovative, and creative social reform.	Incorporating theories she examined to improve the quality of work regarding their usefulness in our current society and ways to implement them in the future.

Table 1. Summary of group two’s Leading Adult Educators.

References

Beder, H. (1989). Purposes and philosophies of adult education. In S. N. Merriam and P. N. Cunningham (Eds.), Handbook of adult and continuing education (pp. 37-50). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

Brittanica Online (n.d.). Margaret Sanger. Retrieved from http://www.britannica.com /EBchecked/topic/522350/Margaret-Sanger

Brunner, B. (n.d.). The Wage Gap: A History of Pay Inequity and the Equal Pay Act —                           Infoplease.com. Infoplease: Encyclopedia, Almanac, Atlas, Biographies, Dictionary,                    Thesaurus. Free online reference, research & homework help. — Infoplease.com.                                   Retrieved from http://www.infoplease.com/spot/equalpayact1.html

Buerkle, C. (2008).  From women’s liberation to their obligation: The tensions between sexuality and maternity in early birth control rhetoric. Women & Language, 31, 27-34.

Coigney, V. (1969).  Margaret Sanger: Rebel with a cause. New York, NY: Doubleday & Company, Inc.

Cornelius, M. L. (n.d.). Sharan B. Merriam Personal Vita. Roger Hiemstra's Web Page.                                    Retrieved February 14, 2013, from http://www-distance.syr.edu/pvitasbm.html

Haub, C. (2004). Global and U. S. national population trends. The Nature and Implications of Environmental Change, 1(2), 5.

Lader, L. (1953). The Margaret Sanger story and the fight for birth control. Garden City, NJ: Doubleday & Company, Inc.

Merriam, S. B. (n.d.). Curriculum vitae: Sharon B. Merriam. Retrieved from www.coe.uga.edu/vita/smerriam_vita.pdf

Merriam, S. B. (2001). Andragogy and self-directed learning: Pillars of adult learning theory. New Directions for Adult & Continuing Education, 89, 3.

Merriam, S. B. (2008). Adult learning theory for the twenty-first century. New Directions for Adult & Continuing Education, 119, 93-98. 

Merriam, S. B., & Brockett, R. G. (2007). The profession and practice of adult education: An introduction. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

Million, B. (n.d.). Class of 2003: Sharan Merriam. International Adult and Continuing Education Hall of Fame. Retrieved February 15, 2013 from http://www.halloffame.outreach.ou.edu/2003/Merriam.html

Sulloway, A. (1959). Birth Control and Catholic Doctrine. Boston. MA: Beacon Press.

Wardell, D. (1980). Margaret Sanger: Birth control’s successful revolutionary. American Journal of     Public Health, 70, 736-742.